Around 98 million children and youth in sub-Saharan Africa are out of school, accounting for nearly 40 per cent of the global out-of-school population. This is disproportionately high, considering that the region accounts for roughly 15 per cent of the world’s population. In simple terms, “out-of-school children” are defined as those within the age bracket for primary or lower secondary education who are not enrolled in either level.
One of the primary barriers to access is conflict. This is particularly evident in Somalia, which has endured violence and upheaval since the collapse of its central government in 1991. Various armed groups, including clan militias and al-Shabaab militants, have vied for control over the capital, with devastating consequences.
At present, nearly 3 million children and youth are out of school in Somalia out of an estimated 7.6 million school-age population.
Less than 23 per cent of children eligible for primary education are enrolled, according to 2020 government statistics. Only 17 per cent progress to secondary education.
I am a scholar of urban geography with a research focus on urban politics and governance.
My co-researcher and I sought to examine the historical, social and economic factors over and above conflict contributing to the high number of out-of-school children in Mogadishu.
We found that public education is both limited and unevenly distributed. Government-run schools make up only 4 per cent of the total number of schools in the city.
These few public schools are disproportionately located in areas dominated by major clans, leaving minority communities and conflict-displaced populations with limited access to formal education.
A key barrier is the prohibitive cost of schooling. Equally important are entrenched cultural dynamics in areas populated by minority clans, where formal education, particularly for girls, is often undervalued in favour of technical skills or small-scale entrepreneurial training passed down through generations.
Much like Somali society’s historical resistance to colonial education through Islamic schooling, many minority communities today rely on vocational skills as strategies of autonomy from dominant clans that control political and economic power and often restrict their access to opportunity.
By narrowing our focus to Mogadishu, our study offers a more detailed and localised understanding of the educational barriers within the city.
It highlights the everyday choices, institutional fragmentation, and socio-religious imperatives that reproduce exclusion in ways that other studies have overlooked.
It contributes to a more nuanced analysis of Somalia’s educational challenges, supporting the development of more targeted and effective policy recommendations and interventions.
The findings
Our qualitative study was conducted in two stages. We started with a review of academic literature, government and non-governmental reports and education policy documents.
The aim was to trace the historical and structural causes of exclusion.
This was followed by 21 semi-structured interviews with families of out-of-school children, teachers, education officials and policymakers at both the regional and federal levels.
Our findings suggest that the reasons children are out of school in Mogadishu are complex and deeply structural. On one level, we found that formal education is largely inaccessible.
Government-funded public education is limited by the small number of schools and by its uneven distribution. Formal private school fees, on the other hand, range from US$120 to US$300 per year. This is far beyond the reach of most households, whose average monthly income stands at US$350.
Though no official statistics exist, anecdotal evidence suggests that hundreds of thousands of children are enrolled in Qur'anic schools, also known as madrassas. This is because madrassa instruction is culturally embedded and widely trusted.
Many families also rely on madrassas because the fees are lower or negotiable, and they offer flexible arrangements, such as discounted fees or waivers.
However, these institutions typically exclude academic subjects such as science, mathematics and language.
Families must choose between two parallel systems – formal and Islamic – that are neither harmonised nor mutually reinforcing.
In many cases, children complete madrassa instruction without acquiring basic literacy or numeracy skills, stalling their educational progression.
This two-track education system goes back to the colonial era. There was resistance to Western-style schools introduced in the 1930s, which were seen as a foreign influence and religious dilution.
Spatial inequality and social identity also exclude people. Peripheral districts and neighbourhoods where minorities are concentrated suffer from underinvestment in educational infrastructure.
These areas may be absent from national and municipal development plans. Some existing schools lack adequate sanitation facilities, libraries, and trained teaching staff.
For internally displaced persons, tenure insecurity and legal ambiguity further limit access to public services, including education.
What needs to happen
This situation is not unique to Somalia, but the scale of exclusion in Mogadishu is alarming. Education is more than academic instruction – it offers safety, structure and hope. When children can’t go to school, the consequences are profound: increased poverty, higher crime and weakened social cohesion.
The solution requires more than constructing classrooms. Based on our research and policy analysis, we propose some recommendations.
With a federal budget of only US$1 billion, the options are limited. For a start, the government should authorise madrassas to provide education up to grade 6 and repurpose primary schools into secondary institutions.
Flexible madrassas and mobile classrooms have shown notable resilience in times of crisis. In the Hodan district of Mogadishu, Qur’anic schools adapted to the influx of the internally displaced by extending hours and reducing fees.
These locally embedded systems should be formally recognised. They also deserve direct national support to ensure quality and alignment with strategic education goals.
Many community-run schools currently operate outside public planning and budgeting frameworks, yet they deliver critical services. In Somaliland, some schools have been financed through zakat (charitable donations) and diaspora contributions. Mogadishu should adopt this model.
While Islamic education enjoys broad legitimacy, its narrow curriculum constrains students’ prospects.
This calls for a hybrid curriculum blending Qur’anic instruction with core academic subjects: literacy, numeracy and science. This has proven successful in pilot schools in Puntland state.
Finally, school construction and rehabilitation efforts should go to historically underserved districts first.
Mogadishu’s out-of-school children are not invisible. They are the future of the city. Including them requires more than donor-led programmes or technical solutions. It requires a political commitment to equity.
This means formally recognising community efforts, bridging religious and secular traditions, and investing where it is needed most.
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Abdifatah Ismael Tahir, Honorary Research Fellow, Global Development Institute, University of Manchester
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.